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AC
Power Systems
Handbook
Third Edition
Jerry C. Whitaker
Technical Press
Morgan Hill, California
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
© 2007

Published in 2007 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-4034-9 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-4034-5 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2006042620
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permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
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T
able of Contents
Preface
................................................................................................................................................
xvii
About the Author ........................................................................................................................... xix
C
hapter 1 AC Power Systems
1.1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Defining Terms ...................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Power Electronics ...............................................................................................3
1.2 AC Circuit Analysis ......................................................................................................4
1.2.1 Power Relationship in AC Circuits ...................................................................4
1.2.2 Complex Numbers ............................................................................................4
1.2.3 Phasors ................................................................................................................6
1.2.4 Per Unit System ..................................................................................................6
1.3 Elements of the AC Power System ..............................................................................7
1.3.1 Transmission Circuits ........................................................................................7
1.3.1.1 Types of Conductors ............................................................................8
1.3.1.2 Overhead Conductors ...........................................................................8
1.3.1.3 Underground Cables ...........................................................................10
1.3.1.4 Skin Effect ...........................................................................................10
1.3.2 Dielectrics and Insulators ................................................................................11
1.3.2.1 Insulating Liquids ...............................................................................12
1.3.2.2 Insulating Solids ..................................................................................13
1.3.3 Control and Switching Systems ......................................................................14
1.3.3.1 Fault Protection Devices ....................................................................15
1.3.3.2 Lightning Arrester ...............................................................................16
1.4 Utility AC Power System Architecture ......................................................................16
1.4.1 Power Distribution ..........................................................................................18
1.4.2 Distribution Substations ..................................................................................18
1.4.2.1 Breaker Schemes .................................................................................20
1.4.3 Voltage Analysis ................................................................................................22
1.4.4 High-Voltage DC Transmission ......................................................................22
1.4.4.1 AC vs. DC Transmission ....................................................................24
1.4.4.2 DC Circuit Breakers ............................................................................25
1.4.5 Utility Company Interfacing ...........................................................................26
1.4.5.1 Phase-to-Phase Balance .......................................................................27
1.4.6 Load Fault Protection ......................................................................................27
1.4.6.1 Fuses .....................................................................................................28
1.4.6.2 Circuit Breakers ...................................................................................28
1.4.6.3 Semiconductor Fuses ..........................................................................28
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1.4.6.4
A
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29
1.4.6.5
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29
1.4.6.6
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.................................................................
30
1.4.7
Measuring AC Power .......................................................................................31
1.4.7.1 Digital Measurement Techniques ......................................................32
1.5 References ....................................................................................................................33
1.6 Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 34
C
hapter 2 Power-Generation Systems
2.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................35
2.2 Fundamental Concepts ..............................................................................................35
2.2.1 Operating Principles ........................................................................................35
2.2.2 Control Techniques ..........................................................................................39
2.3 Power-Generating Systems .........................................................................................40
2.3.1 Fossil Fuel Power Plants ..................................................................................40
2.3.2 Nuclear Power Plants .......................................................................................44
2.3.3 Hydroelectric Power Plants .............................................................................45
2.4 References ....................................................................................................................48
2.5 Bibliography ................................................................................................................48
C
hapter 3 Power Factor
3.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................49
3.2 Fundamental Principles .............................................................................................49
3.3 PF Correction Techniques ..........................................................................................52
3.3.1 On-Site Power Factor Correction ...................................................................53
3.3.2 Shunt Reactors .................................................................................................55
3.3.3 Unwanted Resonance Conditions ...................................................................55
3.3.4 Series Capacitor Compensation ......................................................................56
3.3.5 Static Compensation Devices ..........................................................................57
3.4 References ....................................................................................................................58
3.5 Bibliography ................................................................................................................58
C
hapter 4 Power Transformers
4.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................59
4.2 Inductive Properties ...................................................................................................59
4.2.1 Coils ..................................................................................................................60
4.2.2 The Toroid ........................................................................................................61
4.2.3 Circuit Description of Self-Inductance ..........................................................61
4.2.4 Magnetic Materials ...........................................................................................62
4.3 Basic Principles of the Transformer ..........................................................................62
4.3.1 Counter-Electromotive Force .......................................................................... 68
4.3.2 Full Load Percent Impedance ..........................................................................68
4.3.3 Design Considerations .....................................................................................69
4.3.4 The Ideal Transformer .....................................................................................71
4.3.5 Application Considerations .............................................................................72
4.4 Transformer Failure Modes .......................................................................................75
4.4.1 Thermal Considerations ..................................................................................76
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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4.4.1.1
Lif
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tancy and T
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.....................................................
76
4.4.2
Voltage Considerations ....................................................................................76
4.4.3 Mechanical Considerations .............................................................................77
4.4.3.1 Dry-Type and Liquid-Filled Transformers ....................................... 77
4.4.3.2 Insulation Materials ............................................................................78
4.4.3.3 Insulating Liquids ...............................................................................78
4.4.3.4 Cooling ................................................................................................79
4.5 References ....................................................................................................................79
4.6 Bibliography .................................................................................................................79
C
hapter 5 Capacitors
5.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................81
5.2 Basic Principles ...........................................................................................................81
5.2.1 Series and Parallel Connections ......................................................................85
5.2.2 Practical Capacitors .........................................................................................86
5.3 Capacitor Failure Modes ............................................................................................86
5.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitors .....................................................................................86
5.3.1.1 Mechanical Failure ..............................................................................88
5.3.1.2 Temperature Cycling ...........................................................................89
5.3.1.3 Electrolyte Failures ..............................................................................89
5.3.2 Capacitor Life Span ..........................................................................................90
5.3.3 Tantalum Capacitor .........................................................................................91
5.4 References ....................................................................................................................91
5.5 Bibliography ................................................................................................................92
C
hapter 6 Semiconductors
6.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................93
6.2 Semiconductor Failure Modes ...................................................................................93
6.2.1 Device Ruggedness ...........................................................................................93
6.2.2 Forward Bias Safe Operating Area ..................................................................94
6.2.3 Reverse Bias Safe Operating Area ...................................................................94
6.2.4 Power-Handling Capability .............................................................................95
6.2.5 Semiconductor Derating .................................................................................95
6.2.6 Failure Mechanisms .........................................................................................96
6.2.6.1 Avalanche Breakdown .........................................................................96
6.2.6.2 Alpha Multiplication ...........................................................................96
6.2.6.3 Punch-Through ...................................................................................96
6.2.6.4 Thermal Runaway ...............................................................................97
6.3 MOSFET Devices ........................................................................................................97
6.3.1 Safe Operating Area .........................................................................................97
6.3.2 MOSFET Failure Modes ................................................................................101
6.3.3 Breakdown Effects ..........................................................................................101
6.3.3.1 Thermal Second Breakdown ............................................................102
6.3.3.2 Metallization Failure .........................................................................102
6.3.3.3 Polarity Reversal ................................................................................102
6.4 Thyristor Components .............................................................................................103
6.4.1 Failure Modes .................................................................................................104
6.4.2 Application Considerations ...........................................................................104
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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6.5
ESD Failure Modes ...................................................................................................104
6.5.1 Failure Mechanisms .......................................................................................105
6.5.1.1 Latent Failures ...................................................................................107
6.5.1.2 Case in Point .....................................................................................107
6.6 Semiconductor Development ..................................................................................107
6.6.1 Failure Analysis ..............................................................................................108
6.6.2 Chip Protection ..............................................................................................111
6.7 Effects of Arcing .......................................................................................................111
6.7.1 Insulation Breakdown ....................................................................................112
6.8 References ..................................................................................................................112
6.9 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................112
C
hapter 7 Rectifier and Filter Circuits
7.1
Introduction...............................................................................................................115
7.2 Power Rectifiers ........................................................................................................116
7.2.1 Operating Rectifiers in Series ........................................................................116
7.2.2 Operating Rectifiers in Parallel .....................................................................117
7.2.3 Silicon Avalanche Rectifiers ...........................................................................118
7.2.4 Single-Phase Rectifier Configurations ..........................................................119
7.2.4.1 Half-Wave Rectifier ...........................................................................119
7.2.4.2 Full-Wave Rectifier ............................................................................120
7.2.4.3 Bridge Rectifier ..................................................................................121
7.2.4.4 Voltage Multiplier .............................................................................122
7.2.5 Polyphase Rectifier Circuits ...........................................................................122
7.3 Power Supply Filter Circuits ....................................................................................125
7.3.1 Inductive Input Filter ....................................................................................125
7.3.2 Capacitive Input Filter ...................................................................................127
7.4 References ..................................................................................................................129
7.5 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................129
C
hapter 8 Power Electronics
8.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................131
8.2 Thyristor Devices ......................................................................................................131
8.2.1 Thyristor Servo Systems ................................................................................132
8.2.1.1 Inductive Loads .................................................................................133
8.2.1.2 Applications .......................................................................................134
8.2.1.3 Triggering Circuits ............................................................................137
8.2.1.4 Control Flexibility............................................................................. 139
8.2.2 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor ................................................................................139
8.2.3 Reverse-Conducting Thyristor ......................................................................139
8.2.4 Asymmetrical Silicon-Controlled Rectifier ..................................................140
8.2.5 Fusing ..............................................................................................................140
8.3 Power Transistors ......................................................................................................140
8.3.1 Power MOSFET ..............................................................................................141
8.3.1.1 Rugged MOSFET ..............................................................................141
8.3.2 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor .................................................................142
8.3.3 MOS-Controlled Thyristor ...........................................................................143
8.4 References ..................................................................................................................143
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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8.5
Bibliography ..............................................................................................................143
C
hapter 9 Origins of AC Line Disturbances
9.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................145
9.2 Naturally Occurring Disturbances ..........................................................................145
9.2.1 Sources of Atmospheric Energy ....................................................................145
9.2.2 Characteristics of Lightning ..........................................................................147
9.2.2.1 Cloud-to-Cloud Activity ..................................................................149
9.2.3 Lightning Protection ......................................................................................150
9.2.3.1 Protection Area .................................................................................151
9.2.4 Electrostatic Discharge ...................................................................................153
9.2.4.1 Triboelectric Effect ............................................................................154
9.2.5 EMP Radiation ...............................................................................................155
9.2.6 Coupling Transient Energy ...........................................................................156
9.3 Equipment-Caused Transient Disturbances ...........................................................157
9.3.1 Utility System Faults ......................................................................................158
9.3.2 Switch Contact Arcing ...................................................................................158
9.3.3 Telephone System Transients ........................................................................159
9.3.4 Nonlinear Loads and Harmonic Energy ......................................................161
9.3.4.1 Harmonic Sources ............................................................................164
9.3.5 Carrier Storage ...............................................................................................165
9.3.6 Transient-Generated Noise ............................................................................166
9.3.6.1 ESD Noise ..........................................................................................166
9.3.6.2 Contact Arcing ..................................................................................166
9.3.6.3 SCR Switching ...................................................................................166
9.4 References ..................................................................................................................167
9.5 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................167
C
hapter 10 Power Disturbance Characterization
10.1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 169
10.2 Standards of Measurement ......................................................................................170
10.2.1 Assessing the Threat ..................................................................................173
10.2.2 Fundamental Measurement Techniques ..................................................173
10.2.2.1 Root-Mean-Square .................................................................173
10.2.2.2 Average-Response Measurement ...........................................174
10.2.2.3 Peak-Response Measurement ................................................174
10.2.2.4 Meter Accuracy .......................................................................176
10.2.3 Digital Measurement Instruments ............................................................177
10.2.4 Digital Monitor Features ...........................................................................178
10.3 Reliability Considerations ........................................................................................179
10.4 References ..................................................................................................................179
10.5 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................179
C
hapter 11 Power System Protection Methods
11.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................181
11.2 The Key Tolerance Envelope ....................................................................................181
11.3 Assessing the Lightning Hazard ..............................................................................183
11.4 FIPS Publication 94 ..................................................................................................184
11.5 Protection Alternatives .............................................................................................185
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xii
11.5.1
Specifying System-Protection Hardware
..................................................
187
11.6
References ..................................................................................................................189
11.7 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................189
C
hapter 12 Motor-Generator Set
12.1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 191
12.2 System Configuration ...............................................................................................191
12.2.1 Motor Design Considerations ...................................................................194
12.2.1.1 Single-Shaft Systems ...............................................................195
12.2.2 Flywheel Considerations ...........................................................................196
12.2.3 Maintenance Considerations ....................................................................197
12.2.4 Motor-Generator UPS ...............................................................................197
12.2.5 Kinetic Battery Storage System .................................................................199
12.3 References ..................................................................................................................201
12.4 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................201
C
hapter 13 Uninterruptible Power Systems
13.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................203
13.2 UPS Configuration ...................................................................................................203
13.2.1 Power-Conversion Methods .....................................................................205
13.2.1.1 Ferroresonant Inverter ...........................................................205
13.2.1.2 Delta Magnetic Inverter .........................................................206
13.2.1.3 Inverter-Fed L/C Tank ...........................................................207
13.2.1.4 Quasi-Square Wave Inverter ..................................................207
13.2.1.5 Step Wave Inverter .................................................................209
13.2.1.6 Pulse-Width Modulation Inverter .........................................209
13.2.1.7 Phase Modulation Inverter ....................................................209
13.2.2 Redundant Operation ................................................................................209
13.2.3 Output Transfer Switch .............................................................................212
13.2.4 Battery Supply ............................................................................................213
13.3 References ..................................................................................................................213
13.4 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................213
C
hapter 14 Power Conditioning Devices
14.1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 215
14.2 Ferroresonant Transformer ......................................................................................215
14.2.1 Magnetic-Coupling-Controlled Voltage Regulator ................................. 216
14.3 Isolation Transformer ...............................................................................................217
14.3.1 Tap-Changing Regulator ...........................................................................219
14.3.1.1 Variable Ratio Regulator ........................................................220
14.3.2 Variable Voltage Transformer ..................................................................221
14.3.2.1 Brush Type ..............................................................................222
14.3.2.2 Induction Type .......................................................................222
14.4 Line Conditioner ......................................................................................................222
14.4.1 Hybrid Transient Suppressor ....................................................................224
14.4.2 Active Power-Line Conditioner ................................................................224
14.4.2.1 Application Considerations ...................................................226
14.5 References ..................................................................................................................226
14.6 Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 226
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xiii
C
hapter 15 Transient-Suppression Devices
15.1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 227
15.2 Filter Devices .............................................................................................................227
15.3 Crowbar Devices .......................................................................................................229
15.3.1 Characteristics of Arcs ...............................................................................229
15.4 Voltage-Clamping Devices .......................................................................................229
15.4.1 Zener Components ....................................................................................234
15.4.2 Hybrid Suppression Circuits .....................................................................237
15.5 Selecting Protection Components ...........................................................................238
15.6 References ..................................................................................................................238
15.7 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................239
C
hapter 16 Facility Wiring and Transient Protection
16.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................241
16.2 Facility Wiring ..........................................................................................................241
16.2.1 Utility Service Entrance .............................................................................243
16.3 Power-System Protection .........................................................................................245
16.3.1 Staging ........................................................................................................245
16.3.2 Design Cautions .........................................................................................248
16.3.2.1 Specifications ..........................................................................248
16.3.3 Single-Phasing ............................................................................................249
16.3.4 Surge Suppressor Selection .......................................................................249
16.4 References ..................................................................................................................251
16.5 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................251
C
hapter 17 Circuit-Level Transient Suppression
17.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................253
17.2 Protecting Low-Voltage Supplies .............................................................................253
17.3 Protecting High-Voltage Supplies ............................................................................253
17.4 RF System Protection ...............................................................................................257
17.5 Protecting Logic Circuits .........................................................................................257
17.6 Protecting Telco Lines ..............................................................................................258
17.7 Inductive Load Switching ........................................................................................261
17.8 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................261
C
hapter 18 Grounding Practices
18.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................263
18.1.1 Terms and Codes .......................................................................................263
18.2 The Need for Grounding .........................................................................................263
18.2.1 Equipment Grounding ..............................................................................264
18.2.2 System Grounding .....................................................................................264
18.2.3 The Grounding Electrode ..........................................................................267
18.2.4 Earth Electrode ..........................................................................................268
18.3 Establishing an Earth Ground .................................................................................268
18.3.1 Grounding Interface ..................................................................................268
18.3.1.1 Ground Electrode Testing ......................................................273
18.3.2 Chemical Ground Rods .............................................................................273
18.3.3 Ufer Ground System ..................................................................................274
18.3.4 Bonding Ground-System Elements ..........................................................277
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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18.3.5
Exothermic Bonding
..................................................................................
277
18.3.6
Ground-System Inductance
......................................................................
278
18.4
References ..................................................................................................................280
18.5 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................281
C
hapter 19 Grounding Tower Elements
19.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................283
19.2 Ground-Wire Dressing .............................................................................................283
19.3 Facility Ground Interconnection .............................................................................284
19.3.1 Personnel Protection .................................................................................285
19.4 Grounding on Bare Rock .........................................................................................288
19.4.1 Rock-Based Radial Elements .....................................................................288
19.5 Transmission-System Grounding ............................................................................289
19.5.1 Transmission Line .....................................................................................289
19.5.2 Cable Considerations ................................................................................289
19.5.3 Satellite Antenna Grounding ....................................................................290
19.6 References ..................................................................................................................292
C
hapter 20 Facility Ground-System Design
20.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................293
20.2 Bulkhead Grounding ................................................................................................293
20.2.1 Bulkhead Panel ..........................................................................................297
20.2.2 Lightning Protectors ..................................................................................299
20.2.2.1 Typical Installation .................................................................300
20.2.3 Checklist for Proper Grounding ...............................................................302
20.3 AC System Grounding Practices ..............................................................................303
20.3.1 Building Codes ...........................................................................................303
20.3.1.1 Single-Point Ground ..............................................................304
20.3.2 Isolated Grounding ....................................................................................304
20.3.3 Separately Derived Systems .......................................................................305
20.3.4 Grounding Terminology ...........................................................................305
20.3.5 Facility Ground System .............................................................................306
20.3.5.1 Grounding Conductor Size ....................................................309
20.3.5.2 High-Frequency Effects ..........................................................311
20.3.6 Power-Center Grounding .........................................................................311
20.3.6.1 Isolation Transformers ...........................................................313
20.4 Grounding Equipment Racks ..................................................................................314
20.5 Grounding Signal Cables .........................................................................................316
20.5.1 Analyzing Noise Currents .........................................................................316
20.5.2 Types of Noise ............................................................................................317
20.5.3 Noise Control .............................................................................................318
20.6 Patch-Bay Grounding ...............................................................................................320
20.7 Cable Routing ...........................................................................................................321
20.7.1 Overcoming Ground-System Problems ...................................................322
20.8 References ..................................................................................................................322
20.9 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................322
C
hapter 21 Standby Power Systems
21.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................325
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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21.1.1
Blackout Effects
..........................................................................................
325
21.2
Standby Power Options ............................................................................................326
21.2.1 Dual-Feeder System ...................................................................................326
21.2.2 Peak Power Shaving ...................................................................................328
21.2.3 Advanced System Protection ....................................................................329
21.2.4 Choosing a Generator ................................................................................329
21.2.4.1 Generator Types ......................................................................332
21.2.5 UPS Systems ...............................................................................................333
21.2.6 Standby Power-System Noise ...................................................................333
21.2.7 Batteries ......................................................................................................334
21.2.7.1 Terms .......................................................................................334
21.2.7.2 Sealed Lead-Acid Battery ........................................................335
21.3 References ..................................................................................................................336
21.4 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................336
C
hapter 22 Designing for Fault-Tolerance
22.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................337
22.2 Critical System Bus ...................................................................................................337
22.2.1 Power-Distribution Options .....................................................................338
22.2.2 Plant Configuration ...................................................................................340
22.3 Plant Maintenance ....................................................................................................341
22.3.1 Switchgear Maintenance ...........................................................................342
22.3.2 Ground-System Maintenance ...................................................................342
22.4 References ..................................................................................................................344
22.5 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................344
C
hapter 23 The Efficient Use of Energy
23.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................345
23.2 Energy Usage .............................................................................................................345
23.3 Peak Demand ............................................................................................................346
23.4 Load Factor ...............................................................................................................347
23.5 Power Factor ..............................................................................................................347
23.6 References ..................................................................................................................349
23.7 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................349
C
hapter 24 Safety and Protection Systems
24.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................351
24.1.1 Facility Safety Equipment.......................................................................... 351
24.2 Electric Shock ...........................................................................................................353
24.2.1 Effects on the Human Body ......................................................................353
24.2.2 Circuit-Protection Hardware ....................................................................355
24.2.3 Working with High Voltage ......................................................................358
24.2.4 First Aid Procedures ..................................................................................358
24.2.4.1 Shock in Progress ....................................................................360
24.2.4.2 Shock No Longer in Progress .................................................360
24.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls ........................................................................................361
24.3.1 Health Risk .................................................................................................361
24.3.2 Governmental Action ................................................................................362
24.3.3 PCB Components ......................................................................................362
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
24.3.4
Identifying PCB Components
...................................................................
364
24.3.5
Labeling PCB Components
.......................................................................
364
24.3.6
Record-Keeping
.........................................................................................
365
24.3.7
Disposal
......................................................................................................
366
24.3.8 Proper Management ..................................................................................366
24.4 OSHA Safety Requirements .....................................................................................367
24.4.1 Protective Covers .......................................................................................368
24.4.2 Identification and Marking .......................................................................368
24.4.3 Extension Cords .........................................................................................368
24.4.4 Grounding ..................................................................................................368
24.4.5 Management Responsibility ......................................................................369
24.5 References ..................................................................................................................371
24.6 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................371
Chapter 25 Reference Data and Tables
25.1 Standard Electrical Units .........................................................................................373
25.1.1 Standard Prefixes .......................................................................................374
25.1.2 Common Standard Units ..........................................................................375
25.2 Reference Tables ........................................................................................................376
25.2.1 Power Conversion Factors ........................................................................376
25.2.2 Standing Wave Ratio .................................................................................377
25.2.3 Specifications of Standard Copper Wire Sizes .........................................378
25.2.4 Celsius-to-Fahrenheit Conversion Table .................................................379
25.2.5 Inch-to-Millimeter Conversion Table ......................................................380
25.2.6 Conversion of Millimeters to Decimal Inches .........................................381
25.2.7 Conversion of Common Fractions to Decimal and Millimeter Units .... 382
25.2.8 Decimal Equivalent Size of Drill Numbers ..............................................383
25.2.9 Decimal Equivalent Size of Drill Letters ...................................................383
25.2.10 Conversion Ratios for Length ................................................384
25.2.11 Conversion Ratios for Area ....................................................384
25.2.12 Conversion Ratios for Mass ...................................................385
25.2.13 Conversion Ratios for Volume ..............................................385
25.2.14 Conversion Ratios for Cubic Measure ................................... 386
25.2.15 Conversion Ratios for Electrical Quantities .......................... 386
Chapter 26 Units Conversion Table
26.1 Quantity Conversion ................................................................................................387

感谢楼主分享

這麼好的書當然要頂
感謝樓主分享

感谢分享
不过我下了三次都不成, 只有10.474 KB size?

这有相同档, 但是分档较小, 方便下载, 希望楼主不介意